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Battery, in electricity and electrochemistry, any of a class of devices that convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy. Although the term battery, in strict usage, designates an assembly of two or more galvanic cells capable of such energy conversion, it is commonly applied to a single cell of this kind.

Every battery (or cell) has a cathode, or positive electrode, and an anode, or negative electrode. These electrodes must be separated by and are often immersed in an electrolyte that permits the passage of ions between the electrodes. The electrode materials and electrolyte are chosen and arranged so that sufficient electromotive force (voltage) and electric current (amperes) can be developed between the terminals of a battery to operate lights, machines, or other devices. Since an electrode contains only a limited number of units of chemical energy convertible to electrical energy, it follows that a battery of a given size has a certain capacity to operate devices and will eventually become exhausted. The active parts of a battery are usually encased in a box (or jacket) and cover system that keeps air outside and the electrolyte solvent inside and that provides a structure for the assembly.

Battery usefulness is limited not only by capacity but also by how fast current can be drawn from it. The salt ions chosen for the electrolyte solution must be able to move fast enough through the solvent to carry chemical matter between the electrodes equal to the rate of electrical demand. Battery performance is thus limited by the diffusion rates of internal chemicals as well as by capacity.

The voltage of an individual cell and the diffusion rates inside it are both reduced if the temperature is lowered from a reference point, such as 21¼ C. If the temperature falls below the freezing point of the electrolyte, the cell will usually produce very little useful current and may actually change internal dimensions, resulting in internal damage and diminished performance even after it has warmed up again. If the temperature is raised deliberately, faster discharge can be sustained, but this is not generally advisable because the battery chemicals may evaporate or react spontaneously with one another, leading to early failure.

Beyond the technical factors so far discussed, it must be recognized that commercially available batteries are designed and built with market factors in mind. The quality of materials and the complexity of electrode and container design are reflected in the market price sought for any specific product. As new materials are discovered or the properties of traditional ones improved, however, the typical performance of even older battery systems sometimes increases by large percentages.

Batteries are divided into two general groups: (1) primary batteries and (2) secondary, or storage, batteries. Primary batteries are designed to be used until the voltage is too low to operate a given device and then discarded. Secondary batteries have many special design features, as well as particular materials for the electrodes, that permit them to be reconstituted (recycled). After partial or complete discharge, they can be recharged by DC voltage and current to their original state. While this original state is usually not restored completely, the loss per cycle in commercial batteries is only a small fraction of 1 percent even under varied conditions.

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